From the author: Review of psychological “schools” and their views on human motivation. What is positioned as the cause of our behavior by different areas of science. - Hello Anton. Where did you go, why haven’t you appeared online for so long? What are you doing? - Hi Seryoga, I’m in Krasnodar, sitting in the barracks. And what are you doing? - Yes, I wanted to hang out with the guys in the yard, but instead, I think I’ll better go write a course,... Anton, you know how to motivate! ________________________________________________________________ Son! I hid the gift money for the iPad in the depths of the mess of your room. Get out! And you will find them! Motivation is the study of the causes of human behavior. Modern scientists pay increased attention to this topic, since this topic concerns the scientific explanation of human behavior and the search for factors influencing this behavior. The problem of motivation is the central question of scientists, but at all times this problem has been posed and solved according to -different. Antiquity. The source of behavior is the abilities of the soul. Since the 17th century, physiological processes occurring in the body - in animals. In humans, there are physiological processes + “soul abilities,” which relate narrowly to thinking and affects. This dual understanding and explanation of human behavior: dualism. Nowadays, this is pluralism, since this explanation is divided between various sciences. Psychologists look for an explanation in mental (mental) phenomena. Humanistic sciences - in physiology. Biological sciences - in living nature. Sociologists - in processes occurring in society. All these explanations do not contradict, but complement each other friend. Psychologists proceed from the fact that all known and studied phenomena in psychology influence behavior in one way or another and are among the factors motivating this behavior. What motivates and what regulates human behavior? What regulates behavior answers the question “how?” What motivates - to the question “why?”. Factors that made it necessary to isolate motivation into an independent field of knowledge: Until the 20th century, scientists were interested in how a person learns about the world around him. The person himself turned out to be unknown. The question of how human behavior in terms of motivation differs from the behavior of an animal. Practical needs. Search for effective means of regulating behavior to solve practical problems of training, education, treatment, and managing the behavior of people in organizations. The term “motivation” has two main meanings. Broad and narrow. The broad concept includes almost all psychological and physiological characteristics of a person, many environmental factors influencing human behavior. This understanding of motivation contributes almost nothing new to the general psychological understanding and explanation of behavior. Motivation studies the main psychological formations that determine the initiation, direction and stability of behavior. Other psychological properties, in addition to motivational ones, are considered in the psychology of motivation as instrumental, that is, taking part in the regulation of behavior, but not giving an answer to questions regarding its initiation, purposefulness and sustainability. Narrow concept: motivation is a set of specific reasons that explain human behavior . Answers the questions: why?, for what? For what? For what purpose? A person behaves in a certain way in a given specific situation. Research on motivation in the narrow sense of the word follows 3 main directions: Biophysiological. Biological and physiological mechanisms of motivation. Associated with the dynamics and satisfaction of the organic needs of people and animals. Behavioral. (behavioral) direction. NON-psychological determinants of behavior that act as internal (organic) or external (environmental) stimuli. Stimulus-Response Formula. Pavlov's dog. Psychological direction. Psychological factors that influence people's behavior are studied. Psychoanalyticapproach BehaviouristHumanisticFactor-analyticalCognitivistSocial-psychological.Psychoanalytical - increased attention to unconscious and (unconscious processes. (S. Freud, A. Adler, K. Jung, K..Horney, E. Fromm, G. Sullivan, E. Erikson, G. Murray) Deep motivation is studied, determined by the unconscious in his psyche. Behaviorist - explains behavior based on factors that are “stimuli” (B. Skinner, A. Bandura) Humanistic - an alternative to psychoanalysis and behaviorism. What is specifically highlighted is what represents the highest levels of people's consciousness. Psychological factors are brought to the fore to explain people's behavior. Factor-analytical - characterized by scientific rigor and experimental orientation, they try to define each motivational concept as accurately as possible, and look for experimental evidence that it is something. or another motivational phenomenon really exists. Any psychological law related to motivation must be experimentally tested and confirmed. (R. Cattell, G. Eysenck) Cognitive - the problems of motivation are not highlighted separately and are not specifically studied. It is assumed that an explanation of behavior can be obtained based on the study of the laws of human perception and processing of information. Without specifically highlighting what initiates behavior, directs it and supports it. It is difficult to single out individual authors in this area, since not a single cognitive psychologist has made a statement on the author’s concept of motivation. There are some aspects of their theories of personality that relate to cognitive science understood motivation of behavior. (J. Rotter, D. Kelly) The social psychological approach looks for the reasons for a person’s behavior not in himself, but in his relationships with society and other people. Here, many socio-psychological concepts are used to explain behavior: social roles, group processes, interpersonal relationships, social norms, etc. It is also difficult to identify authors, as in the cognitive approach. Examples: K. Levin, E. Bern, W. Maischel. One of the first theories of motivation was proposed by representatives of behaviorism E. Thorndike and J. Watson. Their concept was formed in the spirit of positivism and pragmatism, thus, the behaviorist theory identified the behavior of humans and animals, considering a person or animal as an organism, as a “set of reactions.” The essence of the behaviorist doctrine of the causes of behavior was described by M.G. Yaroshevsky: “The constant stimulus produced by deprivation had an obvious survival value in that it forced the organism into action, which increased the possibility that the animal would find something that would end the deprivation and allow it to survive. Anything that produced a strong stimulus—excessive heat and cold, physical injury, lack of water—was seen as a source of motivation.” Auguste Comte, a French philosopher and founder of positivism, believed that only that which we can objectively observe and measure is true knowledge. Only observed facts were subject to research. Representatives of pragmatism W. James and J. Dury considered practical benefit to be the criterion for the truth of a doctrine. The idea of ​​​​analogizing the behavior of living organisms with mechanisms was expressed by R. Descartes, talking about “animal spirits” in the human body. So, behaviorists understand a person as an organism that reacts to changes in environmental conditions. The behavior of a person or animal is determined by the expectation of positive reinforcement or an attempt to avoid negative reinforcement. The subject of the study is observable behavior. Based on these provisions, the motivation of behavior comes down to changes in environmental conditions. To obtain desired actions, they must be positively reinforced. Undesirable behavior should be avoided by using negative reinforcement. In the second half of the twentieth century, behaviorists paid attention to human behavior in society, which gave rise to new theories: operant conditioning B.Skinner and social learning of A. Bandura. Despite the socialization of the “object” being studied, B. Skinner refused to recognize the person as an individual. Conclusions about human behavior were drawn from experiments with animals. The acquisition of any form of social behavior was explained as follows: those actions that in a certain situation generate the maximum effect at minimal cost are remembered and then reproduced in similar life situations. A. Bandura's concept believes that new forms of behavior can be acquired without external reinforcement, as B. Skinner argued. We have learned and continue to learn the behavior that we demonstrate, following the example of people who are significant to us. A person learns by observing other people, with cognition and thinking playing an active role. In his theory, A. Bandura retreated from the principles of radical behaviorism, distinguishing man from animals, presenting him as capable of introspection and an active response to himself and events in life. Psychoanalytic theory of motivation. Psychoanalytic theory of S. Freud arose under the influence of two concepts: the existing one the time of naturalistic and new - irrational-phenomenological. S. Freud's search for the source of motivation in physiological processes brings him closer to the behaviorism of E. Thorndike and the instinctivism of McDougall. With the philosophy of anthropology and the directions of irrationalist philosophy - the concept of the unconscious. The ideas of Schopenhauer and F. Nietzsche had a certain influence on the development of psychoanalysis. The main ideas of irrationalism speak about the limited capabilities of the mind and affirm the irrational nature of reality. S. Freud's teaching about the two basic instincts of life and death refers us to the ethics of absolute pessimism of Schopenhauer, who proposes to eradicate the will to life in order to simplify suffering, and to the philosophy of F. Nietzsche, who believed that the will to power is the basis of everything. In his teaching, Z. Freud tries to find a balance between life and death. The structure of personality according to Z. Freud [Freud] consists of three areas: id - unconscious, ego - consciousness and superego - superconscious. The unconscious contains the basic biological impulses of a person; the id is guided by the principle of hedonism. Their implementation is hampered by the superego, a part of the psyche that controls human behavior based on moral principles and a sense of duty. There is an insoluble conflict between these two parts of the psyche, which is smoothed out by the use of psychological defense mechanisms. The ego arises from the id and acts as a kind of buffer between the id and the superego. The ego serves the purposes of the id, however, at the same time, it is subject to the principle of reality. Thus, a person satisfies his unconscious desires in a way that is not condemned in a given culture. An old fairy tale in a new way: - Bring me, father, beads! - And for me, father, a mirror! The sisters speak from the “ego.” The youngest daughter speaks from “ id": Bring me, father, an overseas monster for sexual pleasures! Father = superego - grabs his head and tears out the last gray hairs! And the daughter says from the "ego": Well, good, good! It was a Freudian slip!!!! I actually need a scarlet flower! Bring it, father! There is a conflict between an unaccepted nature and an ununderstood culture. Psychoanalytic theory is based on the assumption of the existence of two innate unconscious drives - the life instinct (Eros) and the death instinct (Thanatos), which are in conflict. These instincts are part of the unconscious part of the personality, are not realized by the person, however, they control his behavior. S. Freud considers the interpretation of dreams to be the main method of understanding the unconscious. Dreams, according to Z. Freud, are an attempt at the fantastic fulfillment of secret desires. “By comparing a large number of dream interpretations, I am able to show you consistently what the dream does with the material of its hidden thoughts.” For the unconscious, it makes no difference how the satisfaction of instincts is achieved - in physical reality or in the imaginaryworld of dreams. This formulation of the question further emphasizes the irrationality of S. Freud’s theory. And, since a person is not aware of the psychological forces that control his behavior, he cannot give himself an account of the true motives of his actions. A humanistic approach to human motivation. A humanistic direction called A. Maslow’s “psychology of the third force”, in psychology arose as a protest to behaviorism and psychoanalysis, which denied a person awareness. The philosophical basis for humanistic psychology was existentialism, a philosophical trend developing in the twentieth century along with personalism and the philosophy of anthropology. Existentialism asserts a person’s full responsibility for his life and destiny, without accepting the position that genetic and environmental factors influence a person’s personality. Jean-Paul Sartre, a representative of this philosophical movement, expressed this statement in the principles of existentialism: “Man is nothing other than what he makes himself. This is the first principle of existentialism.” According to existentialists, every person is obliged to find the meaning of life in an absurd world, which is nothing without the presence of this person. Everyone is given freedom of choice, which determines who or what they will become. Everyone is free to make themselves what they want to be. Existentialists also emphasize the subjectivity of reality. A person endowed with freedom of choice bears personal responsibility for realizing as many of his opportunities as possible, and only then does he live a full, rich life. For its formation, or, in the words of A. Maslow, “self-actualization,” it is not enough to satisfy only biological needs, since in this case life will become meaningless, which from an existential point of view is a betrayal of oneself. “To be human - in the sense of belonging from birth to the human race - must also mean the opportunity to become human,” wrote A. Maslow in the preface to his work. A. Maslow reflected the views of existentialism in his theory of motivation. Based on the principles of humanistic psychology, he tried to explain human behavior by looking at it as a whole: “Our first proposition is that the personality is an integrated, organized whole.” and further: “This position ... suggests that it is rather the personality as a whole that is motivated, rather than a separate part of it.” Considering a person as a person, and not an organism, is new, contrary to behaviorism, and reflected existential ideas. Unlike psychoanalysts who study neuroses, humanistic psychologists have taken the healthy developing personality as the focus of their attention. Based on this position, A. Maslow developed a theory of human motivation. Believing that a person can be happy only if he achieves self-actualization, the author of the theory placed this need (need for self-actualization) at the very top of his famous “Maslow’s pyramid.” Having developed the position that a person has needs of different levels: higher and lower, A. Maslow arranged them in the form of a pyramid, observing a hierarchy. The hierarchy of needs, according to A. Maslow, is as follows: at the first level there are physiological needs that must be satisfied first. Further, after satisfying physiological needs, a person begins to experience a need for security. This is the second level of the pyramid; if the needs of the second level are satisfied, a person begins to feel the need for love and belonging to a group, that is, he moves to the third level of the pyramid. Further, according to A. Maslow, at the fourth level the need for respect comes into its own, and, after it is satisfied, a person, or, better to say, a person, gets the opportunity to experience the need for self-actualization - to realize oneself. “A person must be what he can be. People must remain true to their nature. We can call this needself-actualization.” To motivate a person, or, more precisely, an individual, A. Maslow suggests creating conditions for satisfying the next need in the hierarchy, based on the needs of each individual. The author of the theory assumes that a person striving for self-actualization will develop in exactly this way. Therefore, predicting her behavior is quite simple: if a person was hungry and is now full, he will strive to get housing and stability, and further down the list. Factor-analytic approach. The factor-analytic approach to human motivation was focused on the experimental study of individual personality differences . The basis for the emergence of these theories was not any new philosophical direction, but the emergence of factor analysis as a tool for classifying characteristics. The basic ideas of factor analysis were proposed by C. Spearman, a psychologist who studies mental abilities. Thanks to the creation of the factor analysis method, personality began to be viewed as a set of traits, in contrast to the views of humanistic psychologists on personality as a single whole. In the theory of R.B. Cattell, based on trait theory, the essence of personality is formed by its dynamic traits. Psychological research of personality and its motivation should be subordinated to identifying the laws of human behavior in typical social situations. The factor-analytic theory of personality was created by G.Yu. Eysenck. It is built according to a hierarchical type and includes the following psychodynamic properties: extraversion-introversion, neuroticism and psychoticism. Worth mentioning is the theory of J.P. Guilford, who identified three spheres in the personality structure: abilities, temperament and the hormic sphere. Behavior is determined by personality traits, according to psychologists who use a factor-analytic approach. Trying to study personality as deeply and accurately as possible, scientists again could not resist the temptation to break it down into easier-to-understand traits. However, it was not always possible to predict a person’s behavior in various situations based on trait theory, since the presence of two types of personality traits was discovered: basic and situational. Basic personality traits appear always and everywhere, situational ones - in exceptional cases or episodes of life. Cognitive approach Cognitive psychologists also work in the direction of identifying a separate sphere of the psyche for its study. As the name of the direction implies, its representatives study the cognitive sphere of man. This approach was influenced by the philosophy of pragmatism and, which arose on the basis of these ideas, the psychology of D. Dury. A representative of the cognitive trend in psychology, J. Kelly, was guided by the views of both pragmatism and the semantic theory of A. Korzybski, a philosopher and founder of general semantics. The philosophical movement of pragmatism considers practice to be the criterion of truth. Intellectual activity in pragmatism is considered as a way, a means of planning and designing actions leading to success in achieving the goal of the “interested subject.” Due to the obligatory nature of practice, the philosophy of pragmatism is of interest in relation to the study of human behavior. Human behavior in the pragmatic paradigm is determined by faith, habits and beliefs. Based on the teaching of general semantics by A. Korzybski, the depth of human knowledge is limited by the characteristics of the nervous system and the structure and grammar of the language. People experience the world not directly, but through certain “abstractions”, images of reality and images of what they hear. Thus, the description of reality is different from objective reality. J. Kelly created the theory of personal constructs, designed to explain human behavior as an individual, based on the following provisions: People’s behavior depends on their perception of themselves and the environment. There can be many opinions regarding the same phenomenon or event, several of which are correct. These correct, but different opinions explain reality from different angles. For understanding, explanationand predicting human behavior, you need to understand how this person perceives the world around him. It is impossible to find a true interpretation of human behavior. People act by putting forward hypotheses about what interests them and experimentally testing them in practice. In their actions, they are focused not on the past, but on the future, their behavior is regulated by a forecast for future events. The real world, according to J. Kelly, is distorted for us due to our understanding and perception of it. For everyone there is something like their own personal picture of the world. “No matter what the nature of things is, or how the search for truth ends, the events we encounter today can be interpreted in as many constructs as our minds will allow us to conceive.” Thus, in order to understand and predict a person’s behavior, one should know how he predicts future events in accordance with his personal constructs. In contrast to trait theory, J. Kelly considers personality to be a system of individual personal constructs that judges the world by “imposing” these constructs on reality. And, also in contrast to trait theory, a person acts as a single whole, despite the fact that the system of personal constructs is in a state of transformation in connection with acquired experience and changing conditions. Some personal constructs are very stable, and it is on them that one should rely when predicting the behavior of the bearer and architect of these constructs. Social-psychological approach. In the social-psychological approach to human motivation, scientists believe that human behavior is determined by his relationships with society, as well as with other people. Concepts such as social roles, group processes, interpersonal interactions and other concepts related to the field of social psychology are introduced. The emergence of social psychology as an independent science, distinct from philosophy, dates back to the second half of the 19th century. It was at this time that two German scientists studying philosophy and linguistics, M. Lazarus and G. Steinthal, initiated the publication of the scientific journal “Psychology of Peoples and Linguistics” in 1859. Some branches of science called “psychology of peoples” reflect the problems of modern science “social psychology”. The socio-psychological approach is reflected in the personality theories of K. Lewin [Zeigarnik] and E. Berne [Bern]. The theory he developed was called by K. Levin “the theory of psychological field.” The theory was developed under the influence of ideas drawn from natural sciences such as mathematics and physics, as well as the influence of Gestalt psychology. The psychological direction of Gestalt arose, in turn, from existential philosophy [Gronsky]. K. Levin tried to combine in his theory both philosophical scientific knowledge with natural science. The concept of “living space” is borrowed from physics and means a complex of real, imaginary, existing, potential, past, future and past events reflected in the human psyche and influencing his behavior. Thus, human behavior can be described as a function of this living space. The main predictor of behavior is a person’s ideas about the world around him. This postulate makes K. Lewin’s theory similar to the cognitive approach. The system of needs that creates tension in the human psyche is presented in the personal part of life space. The elimination of tension occurs in a certain situation, and the space of situations is the second part of living space, according to K. Levin. [Zeigarnik] A person evaluates any life situation in the context of his needs, and at the same time evaluates it for the possibility of satisfying them. The stronger a person’s need, the larger the area it occupies in the psychological space of life, and the more strongly it motivates a person to satisfy it.E. Berne, in his acclaimed book “Games People Play,” tries to give!